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It spends large sums annually on packaging research. This is always a strenuous exercise and one of the tools for the same is marketing. There is no specific game rule available for using these marketing tools. The reason is: each promotional tool has its own characteristics. Through frequent use consumers should become accustomed to using the channel which reduces their apprehension and anxiety in purchasing products through the channel.
A brand attitude cannot be performed, unless a consumer is aware of the brand. In memory theory, brand awareness is positioned as a vital first step in building the bundle of associations which are attached to the brand in memory Stokes, Prior family influence research has focused on intergenerational rather than intergenerational influence in consumer generationalisation.
As has been compellingly demonstrated, parents influence children. Yet, consumption domains clearly exist where sibling efforts may also be exerted. Two groups of motives, functional and nonfunctional, have been proposed by Sheth Functional motives are associated with time, place, and possession needs and refer to rational aspects of channel choice.
Whereas non-functional motives related to social and emotional reasons for patronage. The functional motives included: convenience, price comparison, merchandise assortment.
The nonfunctional motives entail: recreation. Thus, a brief discussion on the early models of buyer behaviour, proposed by economists is presented, followed by a discussion on each of the traditional perspectives in consumer research that emerged thereafter. These are the behavioural, cognitive, trait, motivational, attitudinal, and situational viewpoints. Overall, the objective of this section is to outline the features and the central arguments of each of these perspectives.
While a detailed analytical review of the paradigms is presented in section two, at this stage it is worth noting, that the traditional perspectives while diverse with respect to the many aspects of consumer behaviour they investigate, are fundamentally similar in terms of their philosophical and methodological bases for undertaking the examination of consumer issues. The early economic view considered consumer behavior in terms of a single act of purchase itself, and post-purchase reactions.
Thus, the individual buyer seeks to spend his income on those goods that will deliver the most utility satisfaction according to his tastes and relative prices. The antecedents of this view can be traced back to Adam Smith Alfred Marshall consolidated the classical and neoclassical traditions in economics, into a refined theoretical framework which came to be known as the theory of marginal utility.
His theoretical work aimed to simplify assumptions and thereby examine the effects of changes in single variables e. For example, Eva Muller reported a study where only one-fourth of the consumers in her sample bought with any substantial degree of deliberation. The Marshallian model ignores the fundamental question of how product and brand preferences are formed.
The behavioural perspective therefore focuses on external environmental cues such as advertising that stimulate consumer response through learning. The strategic emphasis, of the behavioural modification theories, for example, are to devise a set of expanded behaviour modification techniques e.
While a number of researchers have proposed models to study learning principles e. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning by pairing a neutral stimulus a bell with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs dried meat powder.
The powder was an unconditioned stimulus UCS because it was naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus CS resulting in a conditioned response CR. Thus, conditioned effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.
The basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov primarily applies to responses controlled by the autonomic e. That is, it focuses on visual and olfactory cues that induce hunger or thirst.
When these cues are consistently paired with conditioned stimuli, such as brand names, consumers may learn to be hungry or thirsty, when later exposed to brand cues. Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions. Even a credit card becomes a conditioned cue that triggers greater spending, especially since it is a stimulus that is presented only in situations where consumers are spending money.
People learn that they can make larger purchases when using credit cards, and they also have been found to leave larger tips than they do when using cash Feinberg This perspective views people as problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment. However, much debate surrounds the issue of whether or when people are actually aware of these learning processes. On the one hand, there is some evidence for the existence of unconscious procedural knowledge.
That is, people apparently do process at least some information in an automatic, passive way, which is a condition that has been termed mindlessness Langer Nonetheless, many modern theorists are beginning to regard some instances of conditioning as cognitive processes, especially where expectations are formed about the linkages between stimuli and responses.
The most widely accepted position that opposes behaviourism is that thought and feeling can produce change in action directly. This is cognitivism; in its strongest form it suggests that attitudes control behaviour, and reinforcement only acts by changing attitudes. In addition, the cognitive theories have been criticized for assuming that individuals are complex information processing entities.
Nevertheless, the problem solving perspective has tended to dominate the field of consumer research. And as discussed next, decision making models that have governed consumer theory, are in fact based on the fundamentals of the cognitive principle. These attempt to trace the psychological state of individual consumers from the point at which they become aware of the possibility of satisfying a material need by purchasing and consuming a product to their final evaluation of the consequences of having done so.
Engel et al. The choice determined by the outcome of the information process-aided decision sequence may have satisfying or dissonant outcomes: Festinger first introduced the theory of cognitive dissonance for the consumer, which influence future purchasing.
This model assumes that observed consumer behaviour is preceded by intrapersonal psychological states and events attitudeintention- purchase sequence. Moreover, the model depicts these psychological events as outputs of the processing of information, taking for granted that consumers seek and use information as part of their rational problem solving and decision making processes. Mead used the role concept in his explanation of the social and individual nature of persons. The dramaturgical perspective on consumer behaviour views people much like actors who play different roles Goffman In the presence of others, the actor is seen to organize his activity in order to express an impression that he wishes to convey.
The object of the study of role theory is to increase understanding of role enactment of individuals in social settings, so as to understand and predict behaviour. Personality in general is understood as a concept which accounts for the apparent consistencies and regularities of behaviour over time and across a variety of situations Pervin As such, personality constructs explain those aspects of behaviour which are relatively stable across situations and, as a result, are predictive of future behaviour.
While individuals might not always be uniform and predictable in their patterns of choice in different situations, it might be possible to make sense of and to forecast the general reactions of broadly- defined groups and classes of purchasers. Few significant relationships, which would be of interest to marketing managers resulted from the research which concentrated upon the search for links between aspects of consumer choice such as brand selection and highly specific personality traits such as sociability.
Thus, the success of personality research is also partly attributed to the simultaneous widespread dissatisfaction with psychoanalytical techniques of motivational research. The first attempts to apply Fruedian and neo-Feudian e. Ernest Ditcher advocated the use of psychoanalytical techniques to uncover hidden motivations e. He strongly argued that people could not be asked why they did what they did directly, because most of the time they did not know.
Perhaps the most persistent problem with motivational research was that it failed one of the cardinal rules of scientific methods - replicability. Two researchers could draw two totally different conclusions from the same interview, because motivational research was so dependent upon individual interpretation. Thus, the widespread dissatisfaction with simple demographics and disenchantment with motivational research, coupled with the increasing accessibility of computers gave many researchers the raw material needed to measure the quantitative elements of personality traits, motivations, and psychological attributes e.
As consumer researchers were increasingly influenced by psychology e. The buying process itself is a learning experience and can lead to a change in attitudes Politz Thus, attitudes do not automatically guarantee all types of behaviour. Thus, as discussed above, social influences determine some but not all of the behavioural variations in people. Two individuals subject to the same influences are not likely to have identical attitudes, although these attitudes will probably converge at more points than those of two strangers selected at random.
Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. Attitude researchers have developed the concept of a hierarchy of effects to explain the relative impact of the three components. Each hierarchy specifies that a fixed sequence of steps occur en route to an attitude.
According to the theory of cognitive information processing, attitudes are formed in the order of beliefs, affect, and behaviour. Attitudes based on behavioural learning follow the beliefs, behaviour, and affect sequence. And finally, attitudes formed based on the experiential hierarchy follow the affect, behaviour, and beliefs route. A consumer who is highly involved with a product category and who perceives a high level of product differentiation between alternatives will follow the cognitive hierarchy beliefs-affect-behaviour.
From the marketers perspective the sequence of attitude formation is pertinent from a communications point of view. The complexity of attitudes is underscored by multi- attribute attitude models, in which sets of beliefs and evaluations are identified and combined to predict an overall attitude.
For example, as explained below, situational effects may be behavioural e. According to this approach, then marketers must concentrate on assessing the characteristics of the environment, such as the physical surroundings and product placement, that influence members of that target market. For example, pointof- purchase stimuli such as product samples are particularly useful in inducing impulse purchases. The experiential perspective stresses the gestalt, or totality, of the product or service.
The principles based on the work of Gestalt psychology Koffka maintain that people derive meaning from the totality of a set of stimuli, rather than from any individual stimulus. Here consumers may be highly involved in a decision, but may not lend themselves to the rational approach. Situational effects can also be perceptual i. For example, stress can impair information processing and problem solving abilities.
In addition, time poverty can impact buying decisions. The positivist philosophical stance is characterized by an emphasis on scientific observation and testing. The objective of this type of research is therefore, to observe empirical facts and to establish generalizable laws that can used to predict and control behaviour.
The positivist perspective therefore assumes that a single reality exists; events in the world can be objectively measured; and the causes of behaviour can be identified, manipulated, and predicted.
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